Chernobyl; the power of nuclear

This month we are considering environmental history, a topic which has been defined by Google as ‘… the study of human interaction with the natural world over time.’ Environmental history is quite a new type of historiography and in case anyone is wondering what is meant by historiography, Google defines that as ‘the study of historical writing’ and ‘writing of history’. This week’s post has been specially written for our competition winner, focusing on the nuclear disaster at Chernobyl in April 1986. There is so much one can write about on this subject, as there is just a vast amount of source material available on the internet alone. However, this post will seek to pick out the historical significance of such a disaster and conclude with the lessons we can learn from history.

What happened?

On the night of 25th April 1986 the reactor crew of reportedly ‘undertrained technicians’ at Reactor 4 ‘of the Chernobyl nuclear power plant’ were preparing for a test ‘prior to a routine shutdown’ It has been claimed that the test was ill-judged, as the technicians lost control of the whole system, resulting in the explosion of the Reactor 4 power plant that took place in the early hours of 26th April 1986. It is believed that the main source of the problem was an increased surge in energy levels causing the core of the reactor to combust.

Environmental and social/human impacts?

Two immediate deaths were the result of that fatal night and further deaths took place within the first three weeks, while still further casualties suffering from radiation sickness as the remaining radioactive material drifted with the wind in waves of dust and rain over Ukraine, Belarus, Russia and much of Scandinavia and Europe. It has even been found that some UK farms remain infected with radiation, after more than twenty years, making them unusable. The sheer volume of radiation is believed to be 100 times more than both the atomic bombs dropped on Nagasaki and Hiroshima. Indeed, this event highlights the consequences of human experimenting with the use of nuclear power. Moreover, the bombing of various cities throughout the Second World War, the fears about the Arms Race and even the current state in which we live, whereby many nations have nuclear weapons on standby.

Radiation sickness has been a significant problem throughout Ukraine as a result, which, due to the subsequent weather patterns, has also affected people in other parts of Eastern Europe. Radiation sickness understandably was a fairly new and unfamiliar affliction at the time, not to mention a widespread problem in the late 1980s for much of Eastern Europe. What is more, it has been discovered that more than a million inhabitants of Ukraine, Russia and Belarus are possible sufferers of radiation sickness: ‘By 2000, about 4000 cases of thyroid cancer had been diagnosed in exposed children.’

With regards to the inhabitants, some resettlement of the areas affected by the nuclear disaster has taken place over the past two decades, with the main focus being currently in Belarus. As well as animals beginning to return, even birds resting in the derelict and deserted plant, despite the alleged risks that remain in the affected area.

Political impact on the Soviet Union?

However, despite this seemingly gradual return to normality, one source has strongly suggested a link between the explosion of Reactor 4 and the collapse of the Soviet Union six years later. In that public confidence in the regime is believed to have been eroded by the disaster of the 26th April 1986. Indeed, even Gorbachev himself, the current leader of the S.U. stated that not only was Chernobyl a ‘turning point’ that “opened the possibility of much greater freedom of expression, to the point that the system as we know it could no longer continue.” , but also that it may have been ‘the real cause of the collapse of the Soviet Union’

Lesson for the future?

As a result of this disaster, there is a lot that society can learn about the impact of radioactivity on the environment and humanity.
Indeed, one report has argued that ‘some very tangible practical benefits have resulted from the Chernobyl accident. The main ones concern reactor safety, notably in eastern Europe.’ This is also a learning curve for nuclear plants in Western Europe. Indeed, this disaster can be, in some ways related to the Titanic or other examples in history whereby something which humanity knows little about goes wrong for the world to see. Yet at the same time the events can teach the rest of the world how to work for a better future.

Sources;

Google web definitions

http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/shared/spl/hi/guides/456900/456957/html/nn3page1.stm

http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/chernobyl/inf07.html

http://www.telegraph.co.uk/earth/environment/9646437/The-women-living-in-Chernobyls-toxic-wasteland.html

http://blogs.independent.co.uk/2012/07/11/the-real-chernobyl-diaries-notes-from-ukraine/

http://www.guardian.co.uk/media/2012/dec/11/bbc1-chernobyl-nuclear-disaster

http://www.slate.com/articles/health_and_science/nuclear_power/2013/01/chernobyl_and_the_fall_of_the_soviet_union_gorbachev_s_glasnost_allowed.html

Interview with our Latin tutor Tom Olding on Wednesday 5th December 2012 at the University of Winchester

 

Having interviewed much of the history staff at our university, we thought it might be interesting to get an idea of what other History related staff there are in Winchester. In this interview Joanna and I aimed to discover the significance of Latin to the study of History, as well as some of the reasons for teaching it.

1. Where and what did you study at university?

Tom studied Classics; Latin and Greek at Southampton University from 1969 to 1972 and went onto to do a PGCE, in 1973. He taught in various schools until 2010, including Portsmouth Northern Grammar, Bournemouth Grammar, St Mary’s College in Southampton and part time at New College, which was part of Southampton University, in the 1990s. He is now an associate lecturer at the University of Winchester teaching Latin to beginners and more advanced students, both undergraduates and graduates alike, on Wednesday evenings. Tom told us how his current post at Winchester came about through teaching Latin to a member of the Winchester History Department about ten years ago.

2. What are you currently researching, if anything?

Having worked on the Brokerage books of Southampton for 1477, in the 1980s, which is now part of the Overland Project which Win Harwood is working on about the trade in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries in Southampton. He has also published a study in 2009 on the Downham Piepowders (‘dusty feet’ in French) court in Southampton. Tom has now moved onto his sequel, which is a translation from medieval (not original) Latin to English of the sixteenth century records.

3. What do you most enjoy about your job?

As a teacher, Tom said he enjoys the ‘classical tradition’, as he calls it, of ‘passing on information from previous generations’ and generally being part of the ‘tradition of passing on knowledge’.

4. What has been most challenging in your career?

Tom has found ‘teaching French to reluctant fifth years on a Friday afternoon’ and teaching IT, as he was head of IT when he finished teaching at his last school and had to learn this from scratch, quite a challenge. As well as this he taught archaeology, which he also had to learn from scratch. Tom also told of a particular archaeological challenge which involved the excavation of some stables, which he was involved in, at an eighteenth century school.

5. What do you feel is the most common misunderstanding in the study of languages?

Tom hit the nail on the head with his answer to this question, arguing that in order to learn foreign language; you first must learn the grammar of your own language, which is often something quite new for English speaking people. Therefore, he believes the most common misunderstanding is that most languages are not constructed in the same way. Something the next generation of language students should know!

6. Why do you think Latin is a useful discipline of study?

Tom seems to like the idea of comparing and contrasting languages which one has an understanding of, and he believes that basic grammar helps people to learn the grammar of other languages, so they can compare and contrast them. Indeed, he also pointed out that Latin has a resonance in many modern European languages, particularly Italian, Spanish, Romanian and French.

7. What is the most difficult part of teaching Latin to non-Romance speaking students?

As you could probably guess, Latin grammar is similar but different from English, as Tom said; ‘in fact it’s the English that is the difficult part, as there are so many more exceptions to the rule, than there are rules.’ Whereas; he believes the vocabulary is easier to learn.

8. How do you feel about the Possibility of Latin being bought back in schools and how do you think this might be significant?

Tom seems rather keen on this and even told of one scheme, whom he knows the co-author of, which is being brought back into primary schools as a course called minimum, which is Latin for ‘little mouse’. When we asked whether he thought Latin should be included in the national curriculum he thought it should, but that it depends on how the curriculum is structured and is better for students who are good at English and other languages.

9. How is studying Latin significant to the study of History?

Now this is one of the most important questions to us as History students and as Tom said; ‘If you’re doing Medieval History or Roman History, you can’t get away with not studying it, you’ve got to look at the sources… the medieval stuff hasn’t been translated.’ He also gave a fascinating insight into the difficulties of translating Latin documents, such as the abbreviations and almost illegible handwriting caused by the use of tiny crow quills. In order to overcome these issues, apparently historians must be armed with a magnifying glass and an ultraviolet light because of the extremely faded ink.

10. If you had a time machine where would you go and why?

Finally, our most exciting question: When asked, Tom said he wanted to go back to Ealing in Southampton, in 1734, to find out where his ancestor Peter Olding came from, as he has been researching his family tree. Tom says the earliest record of an ancestor he found, using his skill of translating Latin, was a John Olding, who appeared in the court records in 1490.

A Brief History of Tea Cups

So this week’s blog post will be on the history of tea cups, some rather interesting objects which, depending on where and when they have been used, come in different shapes and sizes. For starters, the common mug and recognisable tea cup (with handles) and saucer have not always been that way. Indeed, when tea cups first came to Europe, during the time of George II, they were much like those in the Middle East, with no handles. The actual beginnings of tea cups can be traced back to China and India where cups were made out of porcelain and had no handles, often being called tea bowls, which remain in those countries today. These were originally made by potters in white or light blue and were used in China during the period 206-220 BC.

According to another source, tea cups were first introduced to us in the seventeenth century by the French, who originally drank from wooden tea cups. Due to the expensive nature of tea when it was first available in Britain, only the wealthiest Brits drank it. As a result, tea cups began in this country as dainty little porcelain cups with hand painted flowers and sometimes even gold leaf paint was also used. Tea cups were available with hand painted designs until the 1920s, when mass production took over. Nowadays, specially designed tea cups can only be found in vintage auctions or some British specialty shops. Royal Worcester china is also famous for making tea cups and other bone china items.

Another popular type of tea cup is the amusement ride which is run by a motor that spins each individual tea cup in a gradually increasing speed, whilst the whole ride turns. This ride is popular in many countries and has also been adapted to features other than tea cups.

Back to drinking tea cups, in modern China and Japan the bowl shape, made out of porcelain and clay is still employed in the making of tea cups. In India however, a completely different glass or stainless steel tumbler style is used today, even some European designs still have no handles and as many of us are aware the American addition of the mug is often used in England today.

Bibliography;

http://www.ehow.com/about_4607243_vintage-tea-cups.html

http://www.ehow.com/facts_7165591_history-tea-cups.html

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teacups

The Determined Duchess

Despite historians knowing little about the life of Eleanor of Aquitaine, or at least not much of her true character, she is still a much debated figure amongst historians and historical novelists. A powerful woman of her time who achieved many things that the majority of her female counterparts could not, such as visiting the Holy Land on Crusade with her first husband Louis VII of France, instrumenting their divorce, surviving a revolt (with her sons) against her second husband Henry II of England and living into her eighties. She appears to have played a significant part in the beginnings of Medieval Chivalry, in the form of the dreamy Courts of Love which flourished in her home duchy of Aquitaine.

There are also a number of issues, which due to the lack of surviving evidence and historical records – as well as the questionable nature of some of the sources – historians are undecided upon, concerning areas such as Eleanor’s moral conduct; whether she really had an affair with her uncle, her influence upon events and ideas in history such as Chivalry and the influence of other people during her life-time, such as Thomas Becket upon her marriage with Henry II.

Many records of Eleanor’s life depict her as a rather scandalous and unfeminine duchess, largely because she, in so many ways, lived in contradiction to the conventional ideas of womanhood of her time. Indeed, in today’s society Eleanor of Aquitaine would be very much accepted for who she was, a politically astute and intelligent heiress, who constantly sought to control her own destiny. What is more the alleged sexual scandals she was involved in, it has been argued, have little standing in historical evidence and were most likely rumours created by men who feared a powerful woman. Indeed, Lisa Hilton’s study on English Queens in the Middle Ages suggests that Eleanor was not the only queen to be seen in a negative light when she did not behave according to the expectations of the time.

It is very clear that Eleanor wielded a lot of control in her marriage with Louis, at least from Alison Weir’s biography Eleanor of Aquitaine: By the Wrath of God, Queen of England, and her novel The Captive Queen, simply due to the fact that Eleanor managed to secure for herself the chance to go on crusade with her husband, rather than remaining in France as his consort, as was expected of a woman of her status. As well as this, Weir notes in her biography that Eleanor tried to not only persuade Louis to seek less from his own advisers, but also to listen to her ideas of ruling France.[1] The fact that, due to successfully convincing Louis that they were too closely related to remain married (despite their papal dispensation) and becoming madly in love with Henry II, Eleanor was able to achieve a divorce from her first husband shows huge confidence and conviction in her sense of destiny and individuality.

What is more, despite the image of a very much imprisoned woman, which can be concluded from Weir’s historical novel, Eleanor appears to have been a strong and determined individual who did not willingly subject herself to male authority. But it is clear that this self-determined nature, intelligence and political appetite created many enemies for Eleanor. It seems that men in her lifetime – and indeed in generations to follow, at least until the twentieth and twenty-first centuries – were rather intimidated by her unconventional character, which may have been why most of the accounts of her life depict the Aquitainian duchess as lustful, demonic and generally a bad influence upon men.

Personally, I cannot help but admire her strength of character, despite the challenges she faced and perhaps some over-hasty decisions she made, in a male dominated world. Although, I am unsure about the overtly lustful character of Eleanor of Aquitaine that is portrayed in Weir’s novel and I feel that this idea, in a way, panders to the image portrayed by those who condemned powerful women, of Eleanor as demonic and ungodly. But perhaps, if this fictional creation reflects her true character, it illustrates her humanity, as few of us survive such difficult lives without escapism of some kind.

It is therefore evident that Eleanor was very much a woman born before her time, being described by Hilton as ‘the most famously exceptional woman of the medieval period.’[2]

Bibliography;

Hilton, Lisa, Queens Consort: England’s Medieval Queens, (London, 2009)

Weir, Alison, Eleanor of Aquitaine; by the Wrath of God, Queen of England (London, 2007)

Weir, Alison, The Captive Queen (London, 2011)

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[1] Alison Weir, Eleanor of Aquitaine: By the Wrath of God Queen of England, (London, 2007), 33

[2] Lisa Hilton, Queens Consort: England’s Medieval Queens, (London, 2009), 111

The Power of the Saints

For my dissertation, in my final year at Winchester University, I will be writing about a specific aspect of female saints in the later middle ages. Although it has not yet been properly defined, my reading for this ten-thousand-word assignment has directed me to study the Church and Christian faith in the medieval period. It has also led me to consider, therefore, the place of the saints in medieval society (particularly England). So for this week’s post, I will be considering the role and criteria of saints during the medieval period and the influence the Church had upon this.

Although during the early years of the Church, saints were seen as those who died for their faith, known as martyrs – both the definition and the criteria of who is considered to be a saint later became altered and scrutinised by the (medieval) Church leaders. For example, local saints honoured by the Anglo-Saxons were shunned by the Church after the Norman Conquest and these lay cults were often deemed as a threat to ecclesiastical order within England[1]. Although, looking at the evidence, it can be concluded that the Normans merely could not pronounce the names of the English saints and so looked down on them.

Furthermore, it has been argued that after ‘the twelfth century, the requirements of a universal church had demanded a still tighter control of the holy in all its forms: a more centralised monitoring of sainthood…’[2], namely Rome wished to dictate such decisions. Indeed, approval, whatever the circumstances of the proposed saint’s life or death, was adamant even for the Church to recognise lay veneration of a saint.[3] The process for such an approval reflects the Church’s preoccupation with authority and order, as well as being able to predict who will go to Heaven or is already in Heaven, based upon their actions.

What is more, not only were saints during the middle ages seen as an example of good moral Christian living, but were also given their own powers within the Church, such as intercessory prayer, whereby people would ask the saints (in prayer) to plead with God on their behalf.[4] As well as this, even after their death, saints were also seen as miracle makers, capable of the kind of healing Jesus is believed to have given, as recorded in the Gospels. Indeed, hagiographers were justified in writing of the deceased as saints if miracles had frequently been recorded at the tomb of the person concerned.

The medieval Catholic idea of patron saints can be seen as being worshipped in a similar way to Pagan Gods and Goddesses, in that they almost became idols in themselves, due to their alleged power in matters of divine judgement. This meant that in a situation someone could pray to a saint whom had experienced something similar in their lifetime, such as Saint Matthew having once been a tax collector (although there are better examples). Saints were also patrons of the place in which they were born or had been practising their faith.[5] However, unlike Pagan idol worship, the honouring of saints was seen, in the middle ages, as a means of worshipping God (as well as increasing one’s chances of getting to heaven).

This power from the virtuous deceased could be obtained, it was believed, from coming into contact with the holy relics of the saints. These relics were often bodily remains of the saints or objects which they themselves had come into contact with such as pieces of the cross which Jesus Christ was crucified on. This incredible power associated with medieval saints can be linked to the notion of ‘friends of God’[6] and ‘soldiers of God’[7] which was attributed to the saints by the medieval Cult of Saints.

However, due to the apparent competition amongst the abbeys of Europe, the writings of hired hagiographers are likely to be rather inaccurate and in some cases corrupt descriptions of the lives of deceased abbots. Indeed, it has been pointed out that ‘an abbey with a saint among its former membership could hope for pilgrims to come and visit the ‘shrine’.’[8] This, in turn would mean increased income for the abbey.

The general expectation of miracles, which, with the help of God, ‘Christians thought saints were regularly capable of performing’[9], throughout the Middle Ages could also help explain why so many miracles were reported and so many people worshipped as saints. However, many still exhibited genuine Christian virtues and therefore earned their place as examples of Christian lives. Some examples were St Paul, who repenting from his old ways of persecuting Christians, followed God’s Will and spent the rest of his life preaching the word and building churches[10], St Stephen who was killed for speaking God’s truth and St Francis of Assisi who cared for the poor and lepers and rejected material wealth in his quest to carry out God’s calling.(11)

Therefore, it can be seen that the saints held a significant position within medieval society and that this was largely shaped by the Church, although one historian has shown that the lay people still held sway: ‘Lay people at all social levels appropriated cults to suit both pious and social needs. Even in so closely a governed country as England, secular and ecclesiastical authorities at the highest levels had only limited control over the appearance and interpretation of the holy.’[12]

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Sources:

Brown, Andrew, Church and Society in England, 1000-1500 (Basingstoke, 2003), pp 61-84

Evans, G. R., Faith in the Medieval World (Oxford, 2002), pp 110-127

Farmer, David, Oxford Dictionary of Saints (Oxford, 2004), ppvii-xxi, 414-415

http://www.the-orb.net/encyclop/religion/hagiography/cult.htm

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canonization

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hagiography

http://www.allaboutprayer.org/intercessory-prayer.htm

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patron_saint

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[1] Brown, Andrew, Church and Society in England, 1000-1500 (Basingstoke, 2003), 63?

[2] Ibid., 62

[3] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canonization

[4] http://www.allaboutprayer.org/intercessory-prayer.htm

[5] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patron_saint

^[6] http://www.the-orb.net/encyclop/religion/hagiography/cult.htm

[7] Ibid.

[8] G.R. Evans, Faith in the Medieval World (Oxford, 2002), 123

[9] http://www.the-orb.net/encyclop/religion/hagiography/cult.htm

[10] David Farmer, Oxford Dictionary of Saints (Oxford, 2004), 414-415

(11) Ibid., 203

[12] Brown, Op. Cit., 84

Easter Traditions

In order to introduce this month’s topic of religious history and as Holy Week draws to a close, I have written about Easter and it’s traditions through history. In case you don’t celebrate it or have forgotten, at the end of this week or in a few weeks’ time, many people around the world will be celebrating both the most significant event in the Christian story as well as a long-lived Pagan event of new birth.

Originally, Easter and certainly the time of year in which it is celebrated, was a Pagan festival which honoured a Goddess relating to nature and new birth, hence the association of lambs, eggs and bunnies. This Goddess was known as Eastre, ‘the Teutonic goddess of spring and dawn.’[1]

Although, after the conversion of Emperor Constantine to Christianity, it is believed, so as to ease in the transition of their Empire from Paganism to Christianity, the Romans adopted many existing Pagan dates and celebrations into the Christian calendar of festivals. As well as Easter being celebrated at the time of the Pagan Spring Equinox, Christmas also almost shares its dating with the Winter Solstice.

Indeed, although there are a fair few, not many of the Christian aspects of Easter specifically derive from the story of Jesus and the accounts of the Bible. As well as this, many of the non-religious aspects evolved much later, such as the Easter Bunny and chocolate eggs.

It can be implied, from history, that the decision to have the Christian celebration of Jesus’ death and resurrection was made partly because it coincides with the Jewish Passover festival and because Easter in the Pagan traditions is a time of new-life. Examples of this include the symbol of the egg and everything that comes with Spring-time such as the birth of baby lambs and other animals. Those who do not share or fully grasp the Christian faith may wonder how the notion of new-life relates to the Christian adoption of the originally Pagan festival of Easter. Well, as Christians believe Jesus was crucified to free us from our sins and that he rose again and consequently defeated death, Christians also believe that as humans we can share in Jesus’ resurrection and eternal life, if we choose to believe in Him and acknowledge that He paid the price for our sins. This is also seen as an opportunity for our souls to live forever in Christ’s salvation. Yet, arguably, despite Easter in England becoming very much a Christian orientated celebration; there still remain clear Pagan traditions, such as the Easter egg, representing new life.

The main Christian aspects of Easter revolve around the week leading up to Easter Sunday, the usual day on which Christians traditionally come to God in worship and thanksgiving, as well as Lent and the famous Shrove Tuesday. Although Shrove Tuesday, it seems, is just as much related to socio-historical customs as it is to Christian’s traditions. According to history, it was tradition to raid the store cupboard and use up all the indulgent supplies such as flour, sugar and eggs, usually used to bake cakes. These would be mixed together to make a feast of pancakes, in recognition of the final day of indulgence before the time of often fasting or giving something up, known in the Christian Calendar as Lent. Ash Wednesday signifies the beginning of Lent and is 46 days before Easter and ‘derives its name from the practise of placing ashes on the forehands of adherents as a sign of mourning and repentance to God.’[2]

With regards to the week before Easter, known in the Church of England as Holy Week, Christians remember Palm Sunday, when Jesus rode into Jerusalem and was allegedly welcomed by people waving palm leaves, after having Spent 40 Days, in the desert, resisting temptation from the Devil. Maundy Thursday in memory of Jesus’ Last Supper with his disciples, when he broke bread and shared wine for the last time. This was also the night on which Jesus was betrayed by Judas, in the Garden of Gethsemane. As well as Good Friday, also known as Black Friday and a few other names, when Jesus sacrificed himself on the Cross through His great love for humanity.

Easter Sunday itself is believed to be the oldest observed Christian festival[3], as it commemorates the day on which Christ fulfilled the penultimate prophecy by dying on the Cross and rising again, as well as the time when the Church community was first established, according to John 19, verses 25-27.

The name Easter in England also has a history of its own, as it is not the original Christian name, instead it was used for the Christian celebration, when the faith was brought to England, so that the transition would be a lot easier for English Pagans, in that the name Easter was associated with the Pagan Spring festival of new life.[4]

The idea of an Easter bunny and the edible egg derives from the original Pagan symbols of new life, which were originally a hare and an ordinary egg, both representing new life. Regarding, the significance of the egg, it is believed that the empty or inanimate shell is supposed to represent death, which Christians believe all humans were subjected to before Jesus’ crucifixion and the actual edible part symbolises the new life we receive through Christ’s sacrifice.[5] It has also been claimed that ‘some believe that the egg might represent the stone that was rolled away from Christ’s tomb, revealing his resurrection.’[6] It is also the case that, despite their disagreements over the specific date on which Easter is celebrated, both Eastern Orthodox Christians and Western European Christians adopted the traditionally Pagan symbols of the hare and the egg. Although, it is not completely clear why the eggs we have in the UK are chocolate, when in some European countries ordinary eggs are still used, being decorated with lots of colour and patterns and given to people as gifts. Another popular tradition in England is the Easter egg hunt, which is believed to derive from America, when German immigrants brought their egg and hare traditions, which over a number of years spread to other countries.[7] This originally featured children making nests and leaving ‘them outside for the hare to lay her eggs in them’[8], although this has now evolved into children finding chocolate eggs hidden for them.

Bibliography

http://www.celebratingeaster.com/traditions/

http://www.theholidayspot.com/easter/history/

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Easter

http://www.religioustolerance.org/easter1.htm

http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/paganism/

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ash_Wednesday

http://www.originalbuzz.info/index.php/2012/02/the-easter-egg-hunt-history/

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[1] http://www.celebratingeaster.com/traditions/history/

[2] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ash_Wednesday

[3] http://www.theholidayspot.com/easter/history/easter_history.htm

[4] http://www.theholidayspot.com/easter/history/easter_history.htm

[5] http://www.celebratingeaster.com/traditions/

[6] http://www.originalbuzz.info/index.php/2012/02/the-easter-egg-hunt-history/

[7] http://www.originalbuzz.info/index.php/2012/02/the-easter-egg-hunt-history/

[8] http://www.originalbuzz.info/index.php/2012/02/the-easter-egg-hunt-history/

What if Arthur had become King of England?

The Tudors are one of the most famous English royal families, into which historians have conducted countless amounts of research, with particular focus upon the wives of Henry VIII, as well as the reigns of both himself and his three children, among various significant events which took place during this momentous period of history. It is therefore, interesting to view certain aspects of this particular time from the perspective of counter-factual history, also known as alternative history. The life of Prince Arthur Tudor, for example, is one of the areas overshadowed by the more decisive and influential aspects of Tudor history. The approach of alternative history could be applied to multiple areas of Tudor history, but in this post I hope to explore the alternative of What if Arthur had become King of England?

Well, the first question one would perhaps wish to ask is; would he have been the great legend his parents had hoped for? Indeed, his place of birth being Winchester – the ‘spiritual home of King Arthur’s Round Table’[1] – implies Henry VII and Elizabeth of Yorke had high hopes for their first born son. Also, would he have been both as famous and infamous as Henry VIII? Considering the view that Henry VIII’s main reason for the Break from Rome was to divorce his first wife – being an incredibly controversial move amongst the English people, it can be argued that Arthur would have been rather different. As, one historian, Gunn argues, that due to his less confrontational nature, Arthur would perhaps not have been so destructive towards the Catholic church as his brother. What is more, any alterations to or replacement of the Catholic Church in England, would, as Gunn suggests, have derived from the grass-roots as a challenge to authority, rather than enforcement by the government or monarchy.

It has also been argued by Kathryn Hadley in her review of Steven Gunn and Linda Monkton’s book Arthur Tudor: Prince of Wales, for the History Today magazine that the English Reformation would have been played out rather differently had Arthur been King of England. This is because it is believed that Arthur was ‘less confrontational’ and therefore would most likely have been more careful like his father. Indeed, when trying to construct an image of Arthur Tudor as king of England, it is helpful to reflect on the attitudes of Henry VII as he would have had a lot of control over his son’s upbringing, such as through choosing his tutors. This point links back to the areas in which the two sons of Henry VII were most educated, in order to prepare them for their duties as English royalty.

Although historians do not have accurate evidence of the nature of the relationship between Prince Arthur and Catherine of Aragon, it has been suggested in Gregory’s historical novel that the two were very much in love and therefore, one can assume that little would have broken their marriage, had they had the opportunity to live as King and Queen of England. However, considering their ages at their time of marriage, any form of relationship can really only be speculation. Also, if we are to consider what we do know, in order to construct an alternative story to the actual succession of the Tudor monarchy, Arthur’s weak health would suggest that producing sons, who would live beyond the age of three, would have been a challenge.

On the other hand though, Referring back to Henry VIII’s first divorce, which, the evidence suggests, was primarily due to the lack of a male heir, it could be argued that things may have planned out differently, had Arthur remained Catherine’s husband. As, although it is hard to tell whether the lack of a male heir would have given him reason to find another wife, having been trained to become a king, unlike Henry, who was trained in the church, as the second son, Arthur may not have been as involved or concerned with the workings of the English church. What is more, the investigations into Henry VIII’s illnesses and their links to his inability to have more than four children – of which only one was a legitimate male heir – could lead to the conclusion that if Arthur had become king, England may have had a more stable line-up of sons. Although, returning to the matter of his health, had Arthur survived the illness which killed him as a young man, it would most likely have weakened him.

But if Arthur, as king, had had to face the same succession crisis as Henry VIII, would he have divorced Catherine and if he had, whom would he have married? This is a question which feels far beyond any reasonable speculations, but being the serious boy he was, it seems likely that had it crossed his mind, Arthur would have made some foreign alliance, through a second marriage, with another European power. But again, there is not enough material to speculate with much accuracy.

One last point I would like to consider in this post, is the amount the Tudor court would have travelled, had Arthur fulfilled his parents hopes’, in becoming the next legendary king of England. If he had demonstrated anything like the character of his father, the court would have remained fairly inanimate and stationary, which combined with his upbringing in the Welsh castle of Ludlow, may have produced a seemingly distant and at times, absent king. Although, again, there is little material for speculation in their area.

To conclude, let us consider what is the significance of counter-factual or alternative history and what can we learn from it? Thinking about the what ifs of a subject or event in history can help us to unravel why history happened the way it did and how these things have had an effect on subsequent events.

Bibliography;

http://www.historytoday.com/blog/news-blog/kathryn-hadley/what-if-arthur-prince-wales-had-been-king

http://www.tudorplace.com.ar/Bios/ArthurTudor.htm

http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/prince_arthur.htm

 

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[1] http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/prince_arthur.htm

 

The Meaning of Christmas

It’s this time of year again, and it seems to come round so quickly! But have you ever stopped to consider the true significance of 25^th December?

From my experience of Christmas, both the weeks leading up to it and the actual day itself have been centred on commercialisation and the anticipation of receiving our dream presents, particularly for children and teenagers. Commercialisation is a huge problem at this time of year, especially for those suffering badly from the government cuts and increased VAT. Although, I think it has always been a dark shadow, how the adverts, the sales and the shop window displays lure us in and play on are stresses over finding just the right present.

What is more, it seems that advent, a time which is supposed to prepare us for the celebration of the birth of Jesus, has been turned into a manic rush in which we are either agonising over the best size tree for the living room, calculating how much food is needed for the hordes who’ll visit over Christmas or frantically rushing through the crowds of shoppers in a mad hunt for that special something – and for what? Indeed, commercialisation is not the only problem, but also how we as individuals value Christmas and whether we conform to the norms of society, with the image of an ideal Christmas. Are we setting ourselves up for disappointment and should we not be revaluating why we go to so much trouble for one day a year?

As a Christian, I feel the true meaning of Christmas has been clouded by the stress of buying the perfect present for those we love and the preparation of all the trimmings, such as the tree and the big dinner. When it comes to the heart of Christmas; how many of us actually attend Church on Christmas Day or Christmas Eve, to hear about the reason for this celebration beginning with Christ? In the past, particularly the Middle Ages and the time of the early church fathers, the story of Christmas and the giving of gifts appears to have been far more important than the receiving of gifts and the watching of television programmes. For example Boxing Day was a time when the Church would share the contents of a wooden Christmas Box with the poor[1], so they also join in the festivities.

Another element of Christmas, which I see as of particular significance is the chance to spend quality time with our families, although even this can sometimes be tainted by perfectionism and commercialism. Not only is it the type of commercialism which we experience through adverts for the latest gadgets and fashions etc., as well as the buying of presents, turkeys and trees, but also the type that we are exposed to on the television, with the introduction of Christmas specials for series such as Outnumbered, Dr Who and East Enders (to name but a few). Don’t get me wrong, viewers do generally enjoy many of these programmes and to some extent the showing of them can help make time to bring families together (in spite of the arguments, selecting what to watch can cause), but they are still a diversion from the truth of Christmas.

Additionally, with regards to festive films, the adaptation of Charles’ Dickens’ novel A Christmas Carol into a film, on numerous occasions, somewhat contradicts the message he was trying to portray. Indeed, the main reason for celebrations on 25^th December is by so many aspects of modern society, in danger of becoming extinct from our consciousness. It is not what we do on the day or how well decorated our homes are etc… that matters; it is the celebration of the coming of our Saviour. In this time of economic strain Christmas is our beacon of hope, as it is the reminder of the faith that men and women have lived by for centuries.

When comparing our attitudes to Christmas with those of past societies, some aspects would almost be unrecognisable to us and others are not dissimilar from today. For example, the intended good will of the Christmas season, such as the Christmas Box given to the poor on Boxing Day, by the Church[2] is a little like the Samaritans Purse Operation Christmas Child campaign, whereby those in more well-off countries pack shoeboxes with goodies and ship them off to children who would otherwise not have a present at Christmas. This just shows that the true spirit of giving is still alive today, but perhaps not as prominent as it ought to be. On the other hand, the traditional medieval celebrations of Christmas featured three different masses, all celebrated on 25^th December; the Angel’s Mass at midnight, representing the coming of the light of God when ‘the light of salvation appeared at the darkest moment’[3], the Shepherd’s Mass at dawn and the Mass of the Divine Word which happened during the day.[4] Therefore, it is clear that throughout the Middle Ages, Christmas was taken very seriously as a significant time of year for Christians. However, some aspects of the Middle Ages remain in our celebrations today, such as the name: ‘Our word Christmas is derived from the Middle English usage “Christ’s Mass”’[5] Based on the three masses. What is trying to be demonstrated here is that the true spirit of Christmas is about sharing and giving, as well as acknowledging the story of Jesus and its meaning and importance to humanity.

I would like to conclude therefore, that as long as we understand why many parts of the world have either a designated day or set of days when people give and receive gifts, and we do not forget that we are buying presents in order to show our love to those in our lives, then we need not feel guilty. As, despite all those things we may be so desperate to buy or receive in order to fulfil our idea of the prefect Christmas, the key point of Jesus as light and love of the world is what’s  really important. Perhaps one of the reasons why buying (and receiving) presents has become so prominent in our celebration of Christmas, is due to the fact that, this day was originally set aside to acknowledge and celebrate the birthday of a child that was destined to save the world. Indeed, we all know from school nativity plays how the three Kings/Wise Men brought the baby Jesus precious gifts  -  but it is perhaps the meaning of these gifts that we ought to be reminded of, not merely that presents were given on the first Christmas. If we consider the gift of Gold, for example, we are reminding ourselves of Jesus’s significance as King of the Universe. Frankincense is believed to have represented that people would come to worship Jesus and Myrrh is associated with death, foreshadowing Jesus’s fate on the Cross.[6]

Although, whether Jesus was actually the Messiah and Saviour of humanity and what it is He is supposed to have saved us from is, in our society, a matter of debate. Whether we believe in the story of Jesus or not, it would be a credit to us all, as beings capable of so much love and compassion, not to expect to receive our dream presents this Christmas, but instead to give whole-heartedly, not merely material gifts to others, but also gifts of compassion, even to those we do not know. For I believe our God came to the Earth in human form, not only to save us, but to show us just how much He loves us and so wants us to share His love with the world.

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[1] http://www.woodlands-junior.kent.sch.uk/customs/Xmas/boxingday.html

[2] http://www.woodlands-junior.kent.sch.uk/customs/Xmas/boxingday.html

[3] http://www.godecookery.com/mtales/mtales09.htm

[4] http://www.godecookery.com/mtales/mtales09.htm

[5] http://www.godecookery.com/mtales/mtales09.htm

[6] http://www.whychristmas.com/story/wisemen.shtml

The Impact of the Moors in Spain

It remains evident today that the period of Moorish rule, particularly in the region of Andalucía, has profoundly impacted Spain as a nation. The Moors, who derived largely from Arabia and Northern Africa, ruled huge swathes of Southern Spain for seven centuries, and had a widening impact on Spanish culture. The Muslim rule of Medieval Iberia (modern-day Spain) has heavily influenced Spain’s language, intellectual culture, and architecture. Although, the peace which existed at the beginning of the reign became increasingly challenged by the crusading Christian invaders. This blog will go on to demonstrate the lasting elements of the Islamic culture on Medieval Spain.

Religious tolerance
During their long reign over a large part of medieval Iberia, the Muslims were known to be a rather accepting group, tolerating and welcoming Jews who had been made outcasts by the ‘…northern invaders…’ of Spain. Indeed, one source suggests that the Jews were so highly valued by the Moors that they became ‘…merchants and ambassadors and were often taken into the leaders’ confidence.’ Islamic rule in Spain from the early eighth to the late fifteenth century featured ‘…a multi-cultural mix of the people of three great monotheistic religions: Muslims, Christians, and Jews.’ Furthermore, it is implied, that despite the restrictions imposed on Jews and Christians, such as higher taxes, this overall unity of the three faiths became an immensely successful settlement, ‘…that matched the heights of the Roman Empire and the Italian Renaissance.’ What is more, Blockmans argues that ‘…of course, there was a shrinking Christian majority who, like the Jews, were also treated with reasonable tolerance by the new rulers.’ It is not clear why the Christians were treated so well by the Muslim settlers, but Blockmans suggests that the Jews welcomed Islamic rule after being oppressed by the Christian Visigoth settlers. However, the centuries leading up to the taking over of Spain by the Catholic monarchs, Ferdinand and Isabella, were not free from wars, even, it seems, amongst the Moors themselves. Although, the events of post 1492, when the last of the Muslim kingdoms in Spain was claimed by the Christian crusaders, certainly highlight the acceptance of the Muslim leaders, as opposed to the persecution of the Christian Inquisition.

Language
Although it is often assumed that the language of Spain derives from Latin alone, closer inspection of many words also reveals Arabic roots. Indeed, it has been argued that; ‘More than 4,000 words of Arabic origin are used in modern Spanish.’ Examples include words beginning with al, such as álgebra (algebra) or Allá (Allah) and other words relating to scientific or mathematical knowledge, as well as exotic words like azúcar (sugar). MacKay also points out that: ‘In the late 1940s …poetic fragments were discovered which, dating back to the tenth century, were composed in Mozarabic – that is, the dialect of Spanish which was spoken in al-Andalus.’ and goes on to emphasise the significance of Arabic poetry in al-Andalus during the Middle Ages. The effect on modern-day Spain is that even some existing place names also derive from Arabic.

Architecture
The architectural influence of the Moors remains perhaps the most recognisable in modern-day Spain, since it has remained largely untouched for several hundred years. MacKay argues that; ‘…the fact that the Mudejars virtually monopolised the crafts associated with building and ornamentation meant that they left their imprint on buildings all over Christian Spain.’ Indeed: ‘Moorish architecture can be found throughout Spain, with its slender columns, horseshoe arches, cupolas, and airy, colorful buildings.’ An example of a Moorish building (later altered after the Reconquista) is the Alcázar (palace) of Seville, which is believed to date back to the tenth century.

Learning/Knowledge
The following book review by Titus Burckhardt entitled ‘Moorish Culture in Spain’ is a great demonstration of just how brilliantly influential the Moorish reign of medieval Iberia was upon the nation:
‘The Arab contribution to human progress—astronomy, mathematics, cosmology, the variety and magnificent wealth of architectural form—is a remarkable legacy of a people who entered the land as conquerors and became peaceful masters. From the establishment of the first mosque in Cordova in 785 until the time of their expulsion by the Catholic kings in 1492, the Moors dominated the intellectual life of the area and had a profound impact on European civilization, which assimilated many of their ideas.’ Indeed, it seems that MacKay is more than justified in saying that ‘…the Islamic world improved a scientific tradition of which Latin Europe was largely ignorant.’ Therefore, it can be argued that without the Islamic conquest of Spain, Europe may have remained ignorant of a great many things.
Overall, it is clear that ‘Islam was a bridging civilisation.’ and became ‘…a transmitter of culture to Europe. Islam also provided a cultural bridge linking Latin Europe with certain aspects of its Greco-Roman past…’ and can even be linked to the argument about the impact of the Islamic language. As MacKay explains how the majority of the scholarship supplied by the Moorish leaders, such as the learning of Greek science and philosophy, was ‘…within an Islamic and Arabic-language setting.’

In conclusion, for the majority of their period of rule, the Moors profoundly impacted the culture of Medieval Spain much of which remains recognisable today. However, this is, to some extent, overshadowed by the gradual process of the Christian Reconquista. Although, it can be argued that Muslim influence was good for Spain as it modernised knowledge/learning in Europe and encouraged a wider cultural awareness through its introduction of different architectural designs, style of religion and language structure. Finally, although the Moorish leaders no longer rule over Spain, the fact that they did so for seven hundred years is, alone, sufficient grounds for their success. Indeed the end was only an inevitable part of their rule, as it is for the existence of any Empire or regime.

Bibliography

Angus MacKay, Spain in the Middle Ages: From Frontier to Empire, 1000-1500 (Hampshire, 1977), pp 82, 83, 91 & 201

W.I. M. Blockmans and Peter Hoppenbrouwers, Introduction to Medieval Europe 300-

1550 (Abingdon, Oxon, 2010), p 102

http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/history/spain_1.shtml

http://www.esotericquest.org/suggestedreading.html

http://www.medieval-life.net/medieval_history_spain.htm

http://www.patronato-alcazarsevilla.es/imagenes/flash/ingles/evolucion/evolucion.htm

http://spanish.about.com/cs/historyofspanish/a/arabicwords.htm